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Spelt

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(Redirected from German wheat)

This article is about the wheat species. For the past tense and past participle of "spell", see Spelling.

Spelt
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Pooideae
Genus: Triticum
Species:
T. spelta
Binomial name
Triticum spelta
Synonyms[1]
  • Spelta vulgaris Ser.
  • Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta (L.) Thell
  • Triticum arias Clemente
  • Triticum elymoides Hornem.
  • Triticum forskalei Clemente
  • Triticum palmovae G.I.Ivanov
  • Triticum rufescens Steud. nom. inval.
  • Triticum speltiforme Seidl ex Opiz
  • Triticum speltoides Flaksb. nom. inval.
  • Triticum zea Host
  • Zeia spelta (L.) Lunell

Spelt (Triticum spelta), also known as dinkel wheat[2] is a species of wheat. It is a relict crop, eaten in Central Europe and northern Spain. It is high in protein and may be considered a health food.

Spelt was cultivated from the Neolithic period onwards. It was a staple food in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages. It is used in baking, and is made into bread, pasta, and beer.

It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (T. aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta. It is a hexaploid, most likely a hybrid of wheat and emmer.

Naming

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Especially in the context of descriptions of ancient cultures, the English word spelt has sometimes been used to refer to grains that were not T. spelta, but other species of hulled wheat such as T. dicoccum (emmer wheat) or T. monococcum (einkorn wheat, also known as "little spelt", in French "petit épeautre"). This confusion may arise either from mistranslation of words found in other languages that can denote hulled wheat in general (such as Italian farro, which can denote any of emmer, spelt or einkorn; spelt is sometimes distinguished as farro grande, 'large farro',[3] emmer as farro medio, ('medium farro'),[3] and einkorn as farro piccolo, 'little farro'[4]), or changing opinions about which actual species of wheat are described in texts written in ancient languages. Thus, the meaning of the ancient Greek word ζειά ([zeiá]) or ζέα is either uncertain or vague, and has been argued to denote einkorn[5] or emmer rather than spelt.[6] Likewise, the ancient Roman grain denoted by the Latin word far, although often translated as 'spelt', was in fact emmer.[7] Similarly, references to the cultivation of spelt wheat in Biblical times in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia are incorrect: they result from confusion with emmer wheat.[8]

Description

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Spelt is a species of Triticum, a large stout grass similar to bread wheat. Its flowering spike is slenderer than that of bread wheat; when ripe, it bends somewhat from the vertical. The spike is roughly four-edged. The axis of the spike is brittle and divided into segments; it shatters into separate segments when fully ripe. Spelt differs from bread wheat in that each seed (a caryopsis, botanically a fruit with its wall fused to the single seed inside) stays fully encapsulated by its husk.[9]

Evolution

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Hybridisation and polyploidy

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Like common wheat, spelt is a hexaploid wheat species, which means it has six sets of chromosomes. It is derived from a hybridisation event between a domesticated tetraploid wheat such as durum wheat and another wheat species, increasing the number of sets of chromosomes.[10] Genetic evidence indicates an initial hybridisation of a domesticated tetraploid wheat and the diploid wild goat-grass Aegilops tauschii. It further shows that spelt could have arisen as the result of a second hybridisation, this time of bread wheat and emmer wheat, giving rise to European spelt.[10][11] The spelt genome continues to influence the breeding of modern hexaploid bread wheat through recent hybridisation.[12]

Spelt most likely originated as a hybrid of bread wheat and emmer. It continues to influence modern breeds of bread wheat.[12]

Spelt, being closely related to bread wheat, is a likely source of alleles to increase wheat's genetic diversity, and so improve crop yields. Analysis of the Oberkulmer cultivar of spelt found 40 alleles that could contribute to increased yield. Among the differences were spelt's larger grain size, greater fertility of tillers, and longer fruiting spikes.[13] Pm5 is an effector-triggered resistance gene for powdery mildew.[14][14]

History

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Spelt has been cultivated since approximately 5000 BCE. In the fifth millennium BCE, there are archaeological remains in the north of Iraq and in Transcaucasia, north-east of the Black Sea. Much more evidence comes from Europe.[15] Remains of spelt have been found in Denmark, Germany, and Poland from the later Neolithic (dating from 2500–1700 BCE).[15][16] Evidence of spelt has been found from across central Europe from the Bronze Age. In the south of Germany and Switzerland in the Iron Age (750–15 BCE), it was a major type of wheat, while by 500 BCE, it had become widespread in the south of Britain.[15] There is evidence that spelt cultivation increased in Iron Age Britain as damp regions of the country with heavy soils tolerated by spelt were being settled.[17]

In the Middle Ages, spelt was cultivated in parts of Switzerland, Tyrol, Germany, northern France and the southern Low Countries.[18] Spelt became a major crop in Europe in the 9th century CE, possibly because it is husked, unlike other grains, and therefore more adaptable to cold climates and is more suitable for storage.[19]

Spelt was introduced to the United States in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was replaced by bread wheat in almost all areas where it was still grown. The organic farming movement revived its popularity somewhat toward the end of the 20th century, as spelt requires less fertilizer.[20] Since the beginning of the 21st century, spelt has become a common wheat substitute for making artisanal loaves of bread, pasta, and flakes.[21] By 2014, the grain was popular in the UK with the crop being grown there as well as in Kazakhstan and Ukraine, with shortages reported.[22]

Nutrition

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Spelt, uncooked
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,410 kJ (340 kcal)
70.19 g
Starch53.92 g
Dietary fibre10.7 g
2.43 g
Polyunsaturated1.258 g
14.57 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
30%
0.364 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
9%
0.113 mg
Niacin (B3)
43%
6.843 mg
Vitamin B6
14%
0.230 mg
Folate (B9)
11%
45 μg
Vitamin E
5%
0.79 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
27 mg
Iron
25%
4.44 mg
Magnesium
32%
136 mg
Manganese
130%
3.0 mg
Phosphorus
32%
401 mg
Potassium
13%
388 mg
Sodium
0%
8 mg
Zinc
30%
3.28 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water11.02 g
Full USDA Nutrient Report
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[23] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[24]

A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of uncooked spelt provides 1,400 kilojoules (340 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, and numerous dietary minerals (table). Highest nutrient contents include manganese (143% DV), phosphorus (57% DV), and niacin (46% DV). Spelt contains about 70% total carbohydrates, including 11% as dietary fibre, and is low in fat (table).

Spelt contains gluten, and is therefore suitable for baking, but this component makes it unsuitable for people with gluten-related disorders,[25] such as celiac disease,[26] non-celiac gluten sensitivity, and wheat allergy.[25] In comparison to hard red winter wheat, spelt has a more soluble protein matrix characterized by a higher gliadin:glutenin ratio.[27][28]

Products

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In Germany and Austria, spelt loaves and rolls (dinkelbrot) are widely available in bakeries.[29] The unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as grünkern ("green grain").[30]

In some countries, spelt may be considered a health food; for example, in Australia it is grown organically for the health food market.[31]

Dutch jenever makers sometimes distil with spelt,[32] while beer brewed from spelt exists in Bavaria[33] and Belgium.[34]

  • Without and with husks
    Without and with husks
  • Wholegrain spelt bread from Poland
    Wholegrain spelt bread from Poland

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species".
  2. ^ "Triticum spelta". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  3. ^ a b Buerli, Markus (2006). "Farro in Italy" (PDF). The Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2017 – via Bioversity International.
  4. ^ Cornish, Richard (18 February 2014). "What is the difference between farro, spelt and freekeh?". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  5. ^ Austin, Benjamin M. (2019). Plant Metaphors in the Old Greek of Isaiah. SBL Press. p. 191. ISBN 9780884142911.
  6. ^ ζειά. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  7. ^ Thompson, D'Arcy W. (1946). "Wheat in Antiquity". The Classical Review. 60 (3): 120–122. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00090387. JSTOR 703297. S2CID 163645029.
  8. ^ Nesbitt, Mark (2001). "Wheat Evolution: Integrating Archaeological and Biological Evidence" (PDF)..
  9. ^ "Triticum spelta L." World Flora Online. 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2024.
  10. ^ a b Blatter, R.H.; Jacomet, S.; Schlumbaum, A. (January 2004). "About the Origin of European Spelt (Triticum spelta L.): Allelic Differentiation of the HMW Glutenin B1-1 and A1-2 Subunit Genes" (PDF). Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 108 (2): 360–367. doi:10.1007/s00122-003-1441-7. PMID 14564390. S2CID 26586515.
  11. ^ De Oliveira, Romain; Rimbert, Hélène; Balfourier, François; Kitt, Jonathan; Dynomant, Emeric; et al. (18 August 2020). "Structural Variations Affecting Genes and Transposable Elements of Chromosome 3B in Wheats". Frontiers in Genetics. 11: 891. doi:10.3389/fgene.2020.00891. PMC 7461782. PMID 33014014.
  12. ^ a b Wang, Yongfa; Wang, Zihao; Chen, Yongming; Lan, Tianyu; Wang, Xiaobo; et al. (2024). "Genomic insights into the origin and evolution of spelt (Triticum spelta L.) as a valuable gene pool for modern wheat breeding". Plant Communications. 5 (5): 100883. Bibcode:2024PlCom...500883W. doi:10.1016/j.xplc.2024.100883. PMC 11121738. PMID 38491771.
  13. ^ Xie, Quan; Mayes, Sean; Sparkes, Debbie L. (2015). "Spelt as a Genetic Resource for Yield Component Improvement in Bread Wheat". Crop Science. 55 (6): 2753–2765. doi:10.2135/cropsci2014.12.0842. ISSN 0011-183X.
  14. ^ a b Cowger, Christina; Brown, James (2019). "Durability of Quantitative Resistance in Crops: Greater Than We Know?". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 57 (1). Annual Reviews: 253–277. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-082718-100016. PMID 31206351. S2CID 190533925.
  15. ^ a b c Cubadda, Raimondo; Marconi, Emanuele (2002). "Spelt Wheat". In Belton, Peter S.; Taylor, John R.N. (eds.). Spelt Wheat in Pseudocereals and Less Common Cereals: Grain Properties and Utilization Potential. Springer. p. 154. ISBN 978-3540429395.
  16. ^ Akeret, Örni (6 April 2005). "Plant Remains From a Bell Beaker Site in Switzerland, and the Beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) Cultivation in Europe". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 14 (4): 279–286. Bibcode:2005VegHA..14..279A. doi:10.1007/s00334-005-0071-1. Archived from the original on 27 December 2012.
  17. ^ Albarella, Umberto (January 2007). "The end of the Sheep Age: people and animals in the Late Iron Age". In Moore, Elizabeth; Moore, Tom (eds.). The Late Iron Age in Britain and beyond. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 389–402. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1272.5208.
  18. ^ Bakels, Corrie C. (21 June 2005). "Crops produced in the southern Netherlands and northern France during the early medieval period: a comparison". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 14 (4): 394–399. Bibcode:2005VegHA..14..394B. doi:10.1007/s00334-005-0067-x. ISSN 0939-6314.
  19. ^ Newfield, Timothy P. (2013), "The Contours, Frequency and Causation of Subsistence Crises in Carolingian Europe (750-950 CE)" in Crisis Alimentarian en la Edad Media, Lleida, Spain: Universidad de Lleida, p. 170
  20. ^ Sugár, Eszter; Fodor, Nándor; Sándor, Renáta; Bónis, Péter; Vida, Gyula; Árendás, Tamás (27 November 2019). "Spelt Wheat: An Alternative for Sustainable Plant Production at Low N-Levels". Sustainability. 11 (23): 6726. doi:10.3390/su11236726.
  21. ^ Smithers, Rebecca (15 May 2014). "Spelt flour 'wonder grain' set for a price hike as supplies run low". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
  22. ^ "Spelt shortage". The Independent. 11 May 2014. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022.
  23. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  24. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  25. ^ a b Tovoli F.; Masi C.; Guidetti E.; et al. (16 March 2015). "Clinical and Diagnostic Aspects of Gluten Related Disorders". World Journal of Clinical Cases. 3 (3): 275–284. doi:10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275. PMC 4360499. PMID 25789300.
  26. ^ Wieser H. (2001). "Comparative Investigations of Gluten Proteins from Different Wheat Species". European Food Research and Technology. 213 (3): 183–186. doi:10.1007/s002170100365. S2CID 84523520.
  27. ^ Schober, T.J.; Bean, S.R.; Kuhn, M. (2006). "Gluten Proteins from Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) Cultivars: A Rheological and Size-Exclusion High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Study". Journal of Cereal Science. 44 (2): 161–173. doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2006.05.007. Archived from the original (pdf) on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
  28. ^ Kohajdová, Z.; Karovičová, J. (2008). "Nutritional Value and Baking Applications of Spelt Wheat" (PDF). Acta Scientiarum Polonorum. Technologia Alimentaria. 7 (3): 5–14. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
  29. ^ Nesbitt, Mark (2004). "Grains". The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. pp. 45–61. ISBN 0-203-02090-1.
  30. ^ Berihuete-Azorín, Marian; Stika, Hans-Peter; Hallama, Moritz; Valamoti, Soultana Maria (17 April 2020). "Distinguishing ripe spelt from processed green spelt (Grünkern) grains: Methodological aspects and the case of early La Tène Hochdorf". Journal of Archaeological Science. 118. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105143. S2CID 218786504.
  31. ^ Neeson, R., et al. "Optimising the quality and yield of spelt under organic production in SE Australia". 14th Australian Agronomy Conference. The Regional Institute, 2008.
  32. ^ Peragine, John N. (30 November 2010). The Complete Guide to Growing Your Own Hops, Malts, and Brewing Herbs. Atlantic Publishing Company. p. 128. ISBN 9781601383532. Retrieved 1 September 2012.
  33. ^ "Dinkelbier". German Beer Institute. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
  34. ^ "Den Mulder". Huisbrouwerij Den Tseut (in Dutch). Oosteeklo. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015.
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