Regime
In politics, a regime (also spelled régime) is the form of government or the set of rules, cultural, or social norms, that regulate the operation of a government or institution and its interactions with society. The two broad categories of regimes are democratic and autocratic. Autocratic regimes can be further[1] divided into types such as dictatorial, totalitarian, absolutist, monarchic, and oligarchic. A key similarity across all regimes is the presence of rulers and formal or informal institutions.[2][1]
Political regimes
[edit]According to Yale professor Juan José Linz there are three main types of political regimes today: democracies, totalitarian regimes, authoritarian regimes, with hybrid regimes sitting between these categories.[3][4] The CIA website also has a complete list of every country in the world with their respective types of regime.[5] The term regime is often used in a demeaning, derogatory way usually to portray a leader as corrupt or undemocratic.[6] It is common to tie an individual or ideology to a government regime i.e. Putin's regime in Russia or China's Communist regime.
Usage
[edit]
While the term originally referred to any type of government, in modern usage it often has a negative connotation, implying authoritarianism or dictatorship. Merriam-Webster defines a regime simply as a form of government, while the Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "a government, especially an authoritarian one."
Contemporary academic usage of the term "regime" is broader than popular and journalistic usage, meaning "an intermediate stratum between the government (which makes day-to-day decisions and is easy to alter) and the state (which is a complex bureaucracy tasked with a range of coercive functions)."[8] In global studies and international relations, the concept of regime is also used to name international regulatory agencies (see International regime), which lie outside of the control of national governments. Some authors thus distinguish analytically between institutions and regimes while recognizing that they are bound up with each other:
Institutions as we describe them are publicly enacted, relatively-enduring bodies of practice, procedures and norms, ranging from formalized legal entities such as the WTO to more informal but legally-buttressed and abiding sets of practices and regimes such as the liberal capitalist market. The key phrases here are 'publicly enacted' and 'relatively enduring'. The phrase 'publicly enacted' in this sense implies active projection, legal sanction, and often as not, some kind of opposition.[9]
Regimes can thus be defined as sets of protocols and norms embedded either in institutions or institutionalized practices – formal such as states or informal such as the "liberal trade regime" – that are publicly enacted and relatively enduring.[9]
Urban regimes
[edit]Other regime theorists argue that there are also more localized urban regimes that are categorized by interests, institutions, and ideas in a city.[10] Urban regimes are defined as the relations between local state and polity elites with particular institution forms and policy goals.[11]
Urban regime theorist Jill Clark argues that these regime types are categorized by economic actors and policy-making within a community. The six urban regime types are: entrepreneurial, caretaker, player, progressive, stewardship, and the demand-side.[10]
An entrepreneurial urban regime is defined as: Strong ties to business leaders, formed to advance a cities hierarchy in relation to other cities, and are operated with closed development decision-making venues with relevant business interests and political leaders.[12]
A caretaker urban regime is: A regime designed to preserve the status quo, keep taxes low and preserve the same quality of life. Often associated with taxpayers and homeowners' interests[13].[14]
A player urban regime is: Active government participation in private decision making. This type of regime manages and resolves disputes between community groups and business. A player urban regime when combined with state actions develops into a stewardship urban regime.[15]
A progressive urban regime is: A key feature of progressive urban regimes is the redistribution of the benefits of a industrialized, developed society. The focus of the regime is economic equity, how to reallocate the benefits of society to various groups or areas of the city who need it most. Most commonly these are ethnic minorities, economically disadvantaged people, and neighborhoods destroyed or changed by gentrification. Everyone in this system has a say on who is most deserving and who will receive these benefits. Progressive urban regimes become activist regimes when merged with a stewardship role.[16]
A stewardship urban regime is: More adversarial towards business then a entrepreneurial regime, and more protective of community interests in relation to big business i.e. looking out for the little guy. A stewardship regime holds itself accountable for protecting taxpayer investments, but not in the redistribution of them like a progressive urban regime would.[17]
A demand-side urban regime is: A key feature of demand-side urban regimes are their support for small business and neighborhood revitalization. They encourage and provide state assistance for small business, as well as birthing small business through state operated venture capital programs. This also allows the government to retain an active role in development. Demand side urban regimes can be created when a progressive regime is connected to state assistance for small business owners.[18]
Measuring regime
[edit]There are two primary ways in which regimes are measured: continuous measures of democracy (e.g. Freedom House (FH), Polity, and the Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem)) and binary measures of democracy (e.g. Regimes of the World).[19] A continuous measure of democracy creates categorical classifications based on gradations of democracy and autocracy[19] though previously, primarily focused on the differentiation of democracies and autocracies.[20] A binary measure of democracy classifies a country as either a democracy or not.[21]
While some argue that unless a government is “x” or generates “x”, then such an institution is not worthy of being declared a democracy,[22] academics establish that there is no single set of practices that embody democracy, but rather a matrix of various outcomes and combinations.[23] According to Stanford political science professor Philippe C. Schmitter and associate professor Terry Lynn Karl, such matrices take into consideration factors such as consensus, participation, access, responsiveness, majority rule, parliamentary sovereignty, party government, pluralism, federalism, presidentialism, and checks and balances.[23]
V-Dem Institute, an independent research institute that aims to conceptualize and measure democracy, serves as one of the world’s most well-known continuous measures of democracy. V-Dem formally describes their data utilizing a notation that contains ratings of numerous indicators.[24] Such indicators include access to justice, electoral corruption, and freedom from government sponsored violence.[24] V-Dem then relies on country experts who supply subjective ratings of said latent or concealed regime indicators over any given period of time.[24]
Types of Regime's by country
[edit]theocratic; the United States does not recognize the Taliban Government
Albania
[edit]parliamentary republic
Algeria
[edit]presidential republic
American Samoa
[edit]An unincorporated, unorganized Territory of the US with local self-government; republican form of territorial government with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches
Andorra
[edit]parliamentary democracy (since March 1993) that retains its chiefs of state in the form of a co-principality; the two princes are the President of France and Bishop of Seu d'Urgell, Spain
Angola
[edit]presidential republic
Anguilla
[edit]parliamentary democracy (House of Assembly); self-governing overseas territory of the UK
Antarctica
[edit]The Antarctic Treaty, established in 1959, designates Antarctica as a zone for peaceful scientific research, banning military activities and mineral mining. Governed by an international framework, the treaty involves 54 countries, promoting cooperation and environmental protection. The Antarctic Treaty System ensures that decisions regarding governance and activities in the region prioritize science and ecological preservation.
Antigua and Barbuda
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Argentina
[edit]presidential republic
Armenia
[edit]parliamentary democracy; note - constitutional changes adopted in December 2015 transformed the government to a parliamentary system
Aruba
[edit]parliamentary democracy; part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Australia
[edit]federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Austria
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
Azerbaijan
[edit]presidential republic
Bahamas, The
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Bahrain
[edit]constitutional monarchy
Bangladesh
[edit]parliamentary republic
Barbados
[edit]parliamentary republic; a Commonwealth realm
Belarus
[edit]presidential republic in name, although in fact a dictatorship
Belgium
[edit]federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy
Belize
[edit]parliamentary democracy (National Assembly) under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Benin
[edit]presidential republic
Bermuda
[edit]Overseas Territory of the UK with limited self-government; parliamentary democracy
Bhutan
[edit]constitutional monarchy
Bolivia
[edit]presidential republic
Bosnia and Herzegovina
[edit]parliamentary republic
Botswana
[edit]parliamentary republic
Brazil
[edit]federal presidential republic
British Virgin Islands
[edit]Overseas Territory of the UK with limited self-government; parliamentary democracy
Brunei
[edit]absolute monarchy or sultanate
Bulgaria
[edit]parliamentary republic
Burkina Faso
[edit]presidential republic
Burma
[edit]military regime
Burundi
[edit]presidential republic
Cabo Verde
[edit]parliamentary republic
Cambodia
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Cameroon
[edit]presidential republic
Canada
[edit]federal parliamentary democracy (Parliament of Canada) under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm; federal and state authorities and responsibilities regulated in constitution
Cayman Islands
[edit]parliamentary democracy; self-governing overseas territory of the UK
Central African Republic
[edit]presidential republic
Chad
[edit]presidential republic
Chile
[edit]presidential republic
China
[edit]communist party-led state
Christmas Island
[edit]non-self-governing overseas territory of Australia
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
[edit]non-self-governing overseas territory of Australia
Colombia
[edit]presidential republic
Comoros
[edit]federal presidential republic
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Congo, Republic of the
[edit]presidential republic
Cook Islands
[edit]parliamentary democracy
Costa Rica
[edit]presidential republic
Cote d'Ivoire
[edit]presidential republic
Croatia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Cuba
[edit]communist state
Curacao
[edit]parliamentary democracy
Cyprus
[edit]Republic of Cyprus - presidential republic; self-declared "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC) - parliamentary republic with enhanced presidency
Czechia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Denmark
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Djibouti
[edit]presidential republic
Dominica
[edit]parliamentary republic
Dominican Republic
[edit]presidential republic
Ecuador
[edit]presidential republic
Egypt
[edit]presidential republic
El Salvador
[edit]presidential republic
Equatorial Guinea
[edit]presidential republic
Eritrea
[edit]presidential republic
Estonia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Eswatini
[edit]absolute monarchy
Ethiopia
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Legislative Assembly); self-governing overseas territory of the UK
Faroe Islands
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Faroese Parliament); part of the Kingdom of Denmark
Fiji
[edit]parliamentary republic
Finland
[edit]parliamentary republic
France
[edit]semi-presidential republic
French Polynesia
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Assembly of French Polynesia); an overseas collectivity of France
Gabon
[edit]presidential republic
Gambia, The
[edit]presidential republic
Georgia
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Germany
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
Ghana
[edit]presidential republic
Gibraltar
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Parliament); self-governing overseas territory of the UK
Greece
[edit]parliamentary republic
Greenland
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Parliament of Greenland or Inatsisartut)
Grenada
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Guam
[edit]unincorporated organized territory of the US with local self-government; republican form of territorial government with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches
Guatemala
[edit]presidential republic
Guernsey
[edit]parliamentary democracy (States of Deliberation)
Guinea
[edit]presidential republic
Guinea-Bissau
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Guyana
[edit]parliamentary republic
Haiti
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Holy See (Vatican City)
[edit]ecclesiastical elective monarchy; self-described as an "absolute monarchy"
Honduras
[edit]presidential republic
Hong Kong
[edit]presidential limited democracy; a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China
Hungary
[edit]parliamentary republic
Iceland
[edit]unitary parliamentary republic
India
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
Indonesia
[edit]presidential republic
Iran
[edit]theocratic republic
Iraq
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
Ireland
[edit]parliamentary republic
Isle of Man
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Tynwald)
Israel
[edit]parliamentary democracy
Italy
[edit]parliamentary republic
Jamaica
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Parliament) under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Japan
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Jersey
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Assembly of the States of Jersey)
Jordan
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Kazakhstan
[edit]presidential republic
Kenya
[edit]presidential republic
Kiribati
[edit]presidential republic
Korea, North
[edit]dictatorship, single-party communist state
Korea, South
[edit]presidential republic
Kosovo
[edit]parliamentary republic
Kuwait
[edit]constitutional monarchy (emirate)
Kyrgyzstan
[edit]parliamentary republic
Laos
[edit]communist party-led state
Latvia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Lebanon
[edit]parliamentary democratic republic
Lesotho
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Liberia
[edit]presidential republic
Libya
[edit]in transition
Liechtenstein
[edit]constitutional monarchy
Lithuania
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Luxembourg
[edit]constitutional monarchy
Macau
[edit]executive-led limited democracy; a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China
Madagascar
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Malawi
[edit]presidential republic
Malaysia
[edit]federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Maldives
[edit]presidential republic
Mali
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Malta
[edit]parliamentary republic
Marshall Islands
[edit]mixed presidential-parliamentary system in free association with the US
Mauritania
[edit]presidential republic
Mauritius
[edit]parliamentary republic
Mexico
[edit]federal presidential republic
Micronesia, Federated States of
[edit]federal republic in free association with the US
Moldova
[edit]parliamentary republic
Monaco
[edit]constitutional monarchy
Mongolia
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Montenegro
[edit]parliamentary republic
Montserrat
[edit]parliamentary democracy; self-governing overseas territory of the UK
Morocco
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Mozambique
[edit]presidential republic
Namibia
[edit]presidential republic
Nauru
[edit]parliamentary republic
Nepal
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
Netherlands
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy; part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
New Caledonia
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Territorial Congress); an overseas collectivity of France
New Zealand
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Nicaragua
[edit]presidential republic
Niger
[edit]formerly, semi-presidential republic
Nigeria
[edit]federal presidential republic
Niue
[edit]parliamentary democracy
Norfolk Island
[edit]non-self-governing overseas territory of Australia
North Macedonia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Northern Mariana Islands
[edit]a commonwealth in political union with and under the sovereignty of the US; republican form of government with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches
Norway
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Oman
[edit]absolute monarchy
Pakistan
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
Palau
[edit]presidential republic in free association with the US
Panama
[edit]presidential republic
Papua New Guinea
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Paraguay
[edit]presidential republic
Peru
[edit]presidential republic
Philippines
[edit]presidential republic
Pitcairn Islands
[edit]parliamentary democracy
Poland
[edit]parliamentary republic
Portugal
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Puerto Rico
[edit]unincorporated organized territory of the US with local self-government; republican form of territorial government with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches
Qatar
[edit]absolute monarchy
Romania
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Russia
[edit]semi-presidential federation
Rwanda
[edit]presidential republic
Saint Barthelemy
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Territorial Council); overseas collectivity of France
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
[edit]parliamentary democracy
Saint Kitts and Nevis
[edit]federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Saint Lucia
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Saint Martin
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Territorial Council); overseas collectivity of France
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Territorial Council); overseas collectivity of France
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Samoa
[edit]parliamentary republic
San Marino
[edit]parliamentary republic
Sao Tome and Principe
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Saudi Arabia
[edit]absolute monarchy
Senegal
[edit]presidential republic
Serbia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Seychelles
[edit]presidential republic
Sierra Leone
[edit]presidential republic
Singapore
[edit]parliamentary republic
Sint Maarten
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy
Slovakia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Slovenia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Solomon Islands
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Somalia
[edit]federal parliamentary republic
South Africa
[edit]parliamentary republic
South Sudan
[edit]presidential republic
Spain
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Sri Lanka
[edit]presidential republic
Sudan
[edit]presidential republic
Suriname
[edit]presidential republic
Svalbard
[edit]non-self-governing territory of Norway
Sweden
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Switzerland
[edit]federal republic (formally a confederation)
Syria
[edit]presidential republic; highly authoritarian regime
Taiwan
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Tajikistan
[edit]presidential republic
Tanzania
[edit]presidential republic
Thailand
[edit]constitutional monarchy
Timor-Leste
[edit]semi-presidential republic
Togo
[edit]presidential republic
Tokelau
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy
Tonga
[edit]constitutional monarchy
Trinidad and Tobago
[edit]parliamentary republic
Tunisia
[edit]parliamentary republic
Turkey (Turkiye)
[edit]presidential republic
Turkmenistan
[edit]presidential republic; authoritarian
Turks and Caicos Islands
[edit]parliamentary democracy
Tuvalu
[edit]parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
Uganda
[edit]presidential republic
Ukraine
[edit]semi-presidential republic
United Arab Emirates
[edit]federation of monarchies
United Kingdom
[edit]parliamentary constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm
United States
[edit]constitutional federal republic
Uruguay
[edit]presidential republic
Uzbekistan
[edit]presidential republic; highly authoritarian
Vanuatu
[edit]parliamentary republic
Venezuela
[edit]federal presidential republic
Vietnam
[edit]communist party-led state
Virgin Islands
[edit]unincorporated organized territory of the US with local self-government; republican form of territorial government with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches
Wallis and Futuna
[edit]parliamentary democracy (Territorial Assembly); overseas collectivity of France
Yemen
[edit]in transition
Zambia
[edit]presidential republic
Zimbabwe
[edit]presidential republic
See also
[edit]
Citations
[edit]- ^ a b Karl, Terry; Schmitter, Phillippe (Summer 1991). "What Democracy Is...and Is Not". Journal of Democracy (3): 76–78. Retrieved March 3, 2023.
- ^ Herre, Bastian (December 2, 2021). "The 'Regimes of the World' data: how do researchers measure democracy?". Our World in Data. Retrieved March 14, 2023.
- ^ Juan José Linz (2000). Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Lynne Rienner Publisher. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-55587-890-0. OCLC 1172052725.
- ^ Jonathan Michie, ed. (3 February 2014). Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences. Routledge. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-135-93226-8.
- ^ "Government type - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2024-10-11.
- ^ "Regime | Autocratic, Democratic & Totalitarian | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-10-11.
- ^ "World citizens living under different political regimes". Our World in Data. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (December 2, 2014). "The Breakdown of the GCC Initiative". MERIP.
- ^ a b James, Paul; Palen, Ronen (2007). Globalization and Economy, Vol. 3: Global Economic Regimes and Institutions. London: Sage Publications. p. xiv.
- ^ a b Clark, Jill (2001). "Six Urban Regime Types: The Effects of State Laws and Citizen Participation on the Development of Alternative Regimes". Public Administration Quarterly. 25 (1): 25. doi:10.1177/073491490102500101. JSTOR 40861827. S2CID 152728694.
- ^ Rhomberg, Chris (1995). ""Collective Actors and Urban Regimes: Class Formation and the 1946 Oakland General Strike"". Theory and Society. 24 (4): 567–594. doi:10.1007/BF00993523. S2CID 144406981.
- ^ "Decision-making in the public sector". Volume 46, Number 5, October 2019. 2019-09-19. doi:10.1287/orms.2019.05.11. Retrieved 2024-10-11.
- ^ Clark, Jill (2001). "Six Urban Regime Types: The Effects of State Laws and Citizen Participation on the Development of Alternative Regimes". Public Administration Quarterly. 25 (1): 3–48. doi:10.1177/073491490102500101. ISSN 0734-9149. JSTOR 40861827.
- ^ "Decision-making in the public sector". 2019-09-19.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|url=(help) - ^ Clark, Jill (2001). "Six Urban Regime Types: The Effects of State Laws and Citizen Participation on the Development of Alternative Regimes". Public Administration Quarterly. 25 (1): 3–48. doi:10.1177/073491490102500101. ISSN 0734-9149. JSTOR 40861827.
- ^ Clark, Jill (2001). "Six Urban Regime Types: The Effects of State Laws and Citizen Participation on the Development of Alternative Regimes". Public Administration Quarterly. 25 (1): 3–48. doi:10.1177/073491490102500101. ISSN 0734-9149. JSTOR 40861827.
- ^ Clark, Jill (2001). "Six Urban Regime Types: The Effects of State Laws and Citizen Participation on the Development of Alternative Regimes". Public Administration Quarterly. 25 (1): 3–48. doi:10.1177/073491490102500101. ISSN 0734-9149. JSTOR 40861827.
- ^ Clark, Jill (2001). "Six Urban Regime Types: The Effects of State Laws and Citizen Participation on the Development of Alternative Regimes". Public Administration Quarterly. 25 (1): 3–48. doi:10.1177/073491490102500101. ISSN 0734-9149. JSTOR 40861827.
- ^ a b Elkins, Zachary. 2000. "Gradations of Democracy? Empirical Tests of Alternative Conceptualizations. American Journal of Political Science. 44(2): 293-300.
- ^ Lauth, H., & Schlenkrich, O. (2018). Making Trade-Offs Visible: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations about the Relationship between Dimensions and Institutions of Democracy and Empirical Findings. Politics and Governance, 6(1), 78-91. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1200
- ^ Herre, B. (2021). “The ‘Regimes of the World’ data: how do researchers measure democracy?”, Our World in Data
- ^ Przeworski, A. (1999). “Minimalist Conception of Democracy: A Defense”, In I. Shapiro, & C. Hacker-Cordon (Eds.), Democracy’s Value Cambridge University Press. 12-17.
- ^ a b Karl, Terry, and Philippe Schmitter. “What Democracy Is…and Is Not”. Journal of Democracy 2, no. 3 (January 1970): 75-88.
- ^ a b c Pemstein, D., Marquardt, K.L., Tzelgov, E., Wang, Y., Medzihorsky, J., Krusell, F., von Romer, J. (2023). “The V-Dem Measurement Model: Latent Variable Analysis for Cross-National and Cross-Temporal Expert-Coded Data”, The Varieties of Democracy Institute. Series 2023:21. 1-32.
- ^ "Government type - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2024-10-20.
Sources
[edit]- James, Paul; Palen, Ronen (2007). Globalization and Economy, Vol. 3: Global Economic Regimes and Institutions. London: Sage Publications.
- O'Neill, Patrick, Essentials of Comparative Government